Written by: Sirat Gohar Daudpoto
Posted on: January 12, 2026 | 
| 中文
Ancient ruins at Harappa.
The archaeological evidence suggests that the Indus people continued to inhabit the country even after the decline of the Indus Civilization. They built new settlements and reinhabited some of their old settlements such as Harappa and Jhukar. But they deserted their previous lifestyle in the mighty cities and towns and adopted village lifeways. This resulted in the creation of a new society on different socio-economic patterns. It was primarily an agriculture-based village society which was structured according to the clans and castes of the people, as reflected in the Vedas and also in the archaeological record of this period.
Grave No. 114 at Timargarha. Photo published by Ahmad Hassan Dani et al. in Ancient Pakistan in 1967
This phase of human history ranges from the disintegration of the Indus Civilization in nineteenth/eighteenth century BC to the reemergence of urban culture in the 7th century AD. During this period some extraordinary social and technological events took place. For instance, the discovery and forging of iron into utensils and the amalgamation of the Indus people with the people from the north (Central Asia). Owing to the former development, the widespread use of iron, it is termed as the Iron Age, same as the Indus Civilization was called the Bronze Age civilization due to the use of bronze material.
Iron and stone objects found at Balambat in Timargarha. Photo published by A.H. Dani et al. in Ancient Pakistan in 1967
Archaeologically speaking, the protohistory of Pakistan covers both Bronze and Iron Ages. The former cover the Indus epoch, whereas the latter is associated with the cultures that developed afterwards in the country. However, it needs to be noted here the late Indus cultures of Cemetery H and Jhukar-Jhangar in the plains, dating from about 1900–1500 BC, do not belong to the Iron Age. Although, they show a pattern of continuity and change vis-à-vis the Indus Civilization. Therefore, it can be said that Cemetery H and Jhukar-Jhangar were late-Indus cultures which represent a transitory phase between Bronze and Iron Ages. Whereas, the earliest iron objects so far discovered in Pakistan date to between the sixteenth/fifteenth century BC. These objects were found at several archaeological sites all across the country, including Pirak in Balochistan, Akra in Bannu, Hathial in Taxila, Timergarha in Dir and Ghalegay in Swat. But mostly they come from the sites associated with the Gandhara Grave Culture in north Pakistan.
Artifacts dating to the Gandhara Grave Culture period from Swat, displayed at Islamabad Museum.
It is believed that the Aryan invasion/migration from the north into the Indus territories took place during this period. Aryans have also been described as the ones who put an end to the Indus Civilization and occupied the lands. The late-Indus cultures and the Iron Age remnants have been linked to them and this whole period is termed Vedic, as Aryans are believed to be the authors of the Veds. But, taking from this point, it is possible that these cultures do not just represent Aryans but a mixed society constituting both Aryans and the natives. We can, as well, say that the Vedic society was not purely Aryan but rather a mixed society, from which the Veds emanated.
Drawing of the Grave 1 at Timargarha. Published by Ahmad Hassan Dani et al. in Ancient Pakistan in 1967
The archaeological assemblages of this period are very limited, although sufficient enough to corelate with the Vedic literature. The remains mostly belong to the Gandhara Grave Culture, from around 1300–500 BC, consisting of graves showcasing distinct burial traditions. In these graves, human relics are buried along with utensils and in some cases skeletal remains of animal are also found together with human bones and other things. Such kind of sites are largely concentrated in Swat, Dir and Chitral. Apart from the graves, some settlement sites, which include Ghalegay, Barikot and Balambat, are also discovered in these districts. The structural remains show that the settlement were stone construction. Among others, one worth noting feature of these settlements is the pit dwelling. These pit dwellings are also found at Burzahom in Kashmir. Based on this similarity in settlement plan, it is believed that the inhabitants of these regions were very close to each other and shared same lifestyle.
Gandhara Grave Culture site of Balambat in Timargarha. Photo published by A.H. Dani et al. in Ancient Pakistan in 1967.
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